RESEARCH AGENDA/Annotated Bibliographies
This page will be presenting the most important sources that I located during my research on birds and cognition.
Reviewing Literature
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In 2010 Alex H. Taylor, an associate professor at the University of Auckland conducted a study on New Caledonian crows entitled "An Investigation into the Cognition behind Spontaneous String Pulling in New Caledonian Crows." This study is about naive New Caledonian crows and how string-pulling could be based on operant conditions and not on insight. The method they used was a standard string-pulling procedure. There are 10 trials given, and in a trial, the crows were scored and time from when they first touched the string until it obtained the food. In the experiment, 12 crows were separated into 3 groups: experienced, naive, and the mirror group. Side-stepping and double-stepping are the two techniques that the crow used. However, they preferred side-stepping, as seen in 80% of the attempts. All the crows preferred to pull the string with the meat rather than the rock attached. This would then decrease their performance on the cross-string test. Crows do not have an understanding of connectivity. They did not have insight into the relationship of the string and reward, and it became even more complex for them with the cross strings. There were different results for different species of birds. An explanation could be embodied cognition, which is understanding the consequences of your actions. This means that the cognition behind string-pulling in crows is due to operant conditioning.
“An Investigation into the Cognition behind Spontaneous String Pulling in New Caledonian Crows”
Taylor, Alex H, et al. “An Investigation into the Cognition behind Spontaneous String Pulling in New Caledonian Crows.” PloS One, Public Library of Science, 22 Feb. 2010, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2825261/.
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Auguste M.P. von Bayern, a behavioral researcher conducted a study on tool construction by crows entitled "Compound Tool Construction by New Caledonian Crows," in 2018. The main idea is that crows can innovate and use their abilities to make objects usable as tools. New Caledonian crows can make new tools by combining objects. The set-up included a box and a syringe holder. There were six trials with 12 minutes each. To get the food, the birds could insert the dowel into the front of the box and slide it in until it falls to the side opening. In comparison, in the other methods, they used a string pull test to test cognition and intelligence. All the birds were able to extract the food with the dowels in their first trial. The crows' tool construction shows their ability to create solutions. Similarly, in the other experiments, birds use cognition to problem solve. In comparison to a chimpanzee, crows continued to repeat
“Compound Tool Construction by New Caledonian Crows”
Bayern, A. M. P. von, et al. “Compound Tool Construction by New Caledonian Crows.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 24 Oct. 2018, www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-33458-z.
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In 2016, Rachael C. Shaw, a behavioral ecologist, conducted a study on avian cognition in the wild entitled "Testing Cognition In the Wild: Factors Affecting Performance and Individual Consistency in Two Measures of Avian Cognition." The main idea of this experiment was that when testing cognition in birds, these test designs should limit the influence of other factors, as testing in the wild is different from testing in a sanctuary. The methods they used included a Novel motor. They assessed motor learning skills in 64 robins by opening a swivel lid. This source is situated with my overall research topic because it talks about the cognition of birds.
“Testing Cognition In the Wild: Factors Affecting Performance and Individual Consistency in Two Measures of Avian Cognition”
Shaw, Rachael C. “Testing Cognition in the WILD: Factors Affecting Performance and Individual Consistency in Two Measures of Avian Cognition.” Behavioural Processes, Elsevier, 8 June 2016, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635716301279.
Defining the Problem
“Deforestation and Avian Infectious Diseases”
Sehgal, R. N. M. “Deforestation and Avian Infectious Diseases.” Journal of Experimental Biology, The Company of Biologists, 15 Mar. 2010, journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/213/6/955/10170/Deforestation-and-avian-infectious-diseases.
In 2010, Ravinder Sehgal, a Professor in the Dept. of Biology at San Francisco State University, wrote a journal entitled “Deforestation and Avian Infectious Diseases.” In his journal, he explains how the effects of habitat loss, including deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural practices, on the spread of pathogens in birds, are widely unknown. Birds have the same types of pathogens as humans and can spread infectious agents to others. Now with better technology, computing, and tracking, scientists can predict and prevent these outbreaks.
“Deforestation and Climate Change Threaten the Most Beloved Wild Birds.”
“Deforestation and Climate Change Threaten the Most Beloved Wild Birds.” Science and Climate, 9 Oct. 2020, climatechange.ucdavis.edu/news/deforestation-and-climate-change-threaten-the-most-beloved-wild-birds/.
In UC Davis’s article, “Deforestation and Climate Change Threaten the Most Beloved Wild Birds,” they talked about a recent study led by researchers at the University of California, Davis, and the University of British Columbia. In the study, researchers counted and identified birds for three years at 150 different sites in Costa Rica. They also administered in-person and online questionnaire surveys asking people their opinions on the bird species found in the study region. Their research showed how deforestation and climate change not only threaten the birds themselves, but also the connections people have constructed with birds for decades.
“Habitat Impacts.”
“Habitat Impacts.” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service - Department of the Interior, www.fws.gov/birds/bird-enthusiasts/threats-to-birds/habitat-impacts.php.
The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service is a federal government agency. They have a Migratory Bird Program and they talk about how loss, degradation and fragmentation could potentially be the largest individual threat to migratory birds. One of the biggest threats to the bird population is habitat loss. Part of this comes from industrial farming. Although agriculture is great for human consumption, many chemicals are used to grow these foods. Being exposed to pesticides, such as neonicotinoids, impose a great risk to birds.
Solutions
“Solution to Deforestation”
Moas, Amy, et al. “Solutions to Deforestation.” Greenpeace USA, 19 May 2020, www.greenpeace.org/usa/forests/solutions-to-deforestation/.
Ending deforestation is our best chance to conserve wildlife, and help the rights of bird communities. It’s also one of the quickest and most cost-effective ways to curb global warming. Greenpeace is campaigning for a deforestation-free future. They are a a non-governmental environmental organization that helps with global environmental problems. They talked about the importance of the power of the marketplace, standing with indigenous people, promoting sustainable choices, changing the politics, and much more.
“Conserving Bird Habitat in Cities”
Eubanks, Emily, and Posted: “Conserving Bird Habitat in Cities.” Center for Land Use Efficiency, 11 May 2021, blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/clue/2021/05/11/conserving-bird-habitat-in-cities/.
Another solution to habitat loss is the efficiency of land use. There are many opportunities to design and manage urban landscapes. These can be placed in yards, neighborhoods, parks, and many more places. Dr. Mark Hostetler, a professor of wildlife ecology and conservation, tackles this issue by translating published research and creating an online bird habitat evaluation tool.
“Habitat Loss”
“Habitat Loss.” American Bird Conservancy, 27 Apr. 2021, abcbirds.org/threat/habitat/
The American Bird Conservancy has issued many ways we can follow to stabilize and prevent extinctions. One of their projects is restoring the Golden-winged Warbler with the partnership with the Joint Ventures, supported by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. They are one of the most threatened migratory birds. They are also focused on many countries, including Brazil, Bolivia, and Mexico. To help out, we take action by avoiding the use of pesticides and making more sustainable choices. Donations are also available for those who want to contribute.
